Python Tutorial: Conditional Statements

Python Tutorial: Conditional Statements

Python is a smart language , compare to other programing language python code is so smart that it makes a compact and meaningful understanding of code with a good coading structure. The syntax of python is easy for both beginner and expert level programmer. Python does not extra opening and closing braket ({}) , the number of line reduce .In this chapter we will discuss about conditional statement in Python . Conditional statement means if,else,elseif. First you will know when if is required. If we have a condition and if the condition satisfy the come code segment will be executed.

1. The if Statement
Run code only if a condition is True . If condition is on executed only the statement is true , here the age is over 18  then they statement will be executed.

age = 18
if age >= 18:
    print("You are an adult!")

Output
You are an adult!

2. The else Statement
In case of else , else statement is executed only if the "if" statement fails or return false.

age = 16
if age >= 18:
    print("You are an adult!")
else:
    print("You are a minor.")

Output

You are a minor.

3. The else if Statement (else if)

"elseif" only executed when the if statement does not and the next condition satisfy "elseif" .  "elseif" does not execute automatically , if statement and previous all condition fail and "elseif" condition satisfy ,  then only "elseif" statement executed. 

score = 85

if score >= 90:
    print("Grade: A")
elif score >= 80:
    print("Grade: B")
elif score >= 70:
    print("Grade: C")
elif score >= 60:
    print("Grade: D")
else:
    print("Grade: F")

Output

Grade: B

4. Nested if Statements

In python , if statement can contain another if statement , that is called nexted if , here is the example of nexted if statement.

age = 20
citizen = True
if age >= 18:
    if citizen:
        print("You can vote!")
    else:
        print("You are old enough but not a citizen.")
else:
    print("You are too young to vote.")

Output:
You can vote!

5. Comparison Operators

Operator   Meaning

==               Equal to

!=                Not equal to

>                 Greater than

<                 Less than

>=              Greater than or equal

<=              Less than or equal

6. Logical Operators

Operator    Meaning                  Example
and            Both true                 x > 5 and x < 15
or              At least one true     x < 5 or x > 15
not            Reverse truth          not(x == y)

Example of Comparison Operators

x = 10   y = 5

if x > y:

    print("x is greater")

Logical Operators

temperature = 25

is_sunny = True

if temperature > 20 and is_sunny:

    print("Perfect day for a picnic!")

Prepared By :Ayan Banerjee

Python Tutorial : function

Python Tutorial : function

Python is one of the smartest programming language in modern programming world ,  probably Python contain the most advance libraries among the other programming language. Python is very popular for both backend , frontend and embedded software design and artificial intelligence software design. Python on does not contain only inbuild library , many third party provider several library to support Python for more advance work.

Today,  in this tutorial we will learn about function in Python. First we have to learn what is function  ? 

    A function is a block of code that have some specific task and objective , that means when we call a function ,the block code will be executed and it will return some value. The value must may be image, video , interger , string  everything. 

In other language , function starts and close with opening and closing braket( { }) ,but Python is very smart coding language , it handle opening and closing of the function in a smart way so that the function is compact, length is small.

Here is a smaple function  

def HellowWorld():
       print("Hello! Welcome to Python functions.")

def → defines the function
HellowWorld → function name
() → parentheses (for parameters)

How to Call function

Calling function in Python is very easy ,  just put the name with parameter.

HellowWorld()

Sigle Parameter Function

def HellowWorld(name):

    print(f"Hello, {name}! Nice to meet you.")

Calling :HellowWorld("Ayan") 

Output:Sum: Ayan ! Nice to meet you.

Multi Parameter Function

def add(a, b, c):

    result = a + b + c

    print("Sum:", result)

Calling:add(10, 20, 30)

Output:Sum: 60

Function Returns Multiple Values
Python can return multiple return values , this is simple and just like same method calling simple function.First you have to write all return variable and then call the functions .There is the simple example

def calculate(a, b):
    add = a + b
    sub = a - b
    return add, sub

Calling : 

x, y = calculate(10, 5)

print("Sum:", x)
print("Difference:", y)

Output:
Sum: 15
Difference: 5

Functions Can be called Together
Multiple function can be called together , first call the function which need to call first and then on.Here is the example of the same

def get_input():
    a = int(input("Enter first number: "))
    b = int(input("Enter second number: "))
    return a, b

def add(a, b):
    return a + b

def main():
    x, y = get_input()
    result = add(x, y)
    print("Sum is:", result)

Calling :main()

Nested Function
Nested function meaning function under a function .Multiple nested function can be nested under a main function.We do not need to call inner function , we just need to call outer function, inner function will be called automatically.

def outer_function():

    print("Outer function started.")

    def inner_function():

        print("Inner function executed.")

      inner_function()  # call inner function inside outer

Calling :outer_function()

Returning Inner Function

You can return the inner function from the outer function  , this is called a closure.

def outer_function():
    def inner_function():
        print("Hello from inner function!")
    return inner_function  # returning the function, not calling it

Calling :
greet = outer_function()
greet()  

Output:

Hello from inner function!

                 Prepared By: https://www.sonjukta.com/About.html

Python Tutorial : Loop

Python Tutorial : Loop

                    Python is one of the popular language programming language , Python are very popular since 1980 for its simplicity , easy of learning and code under stability for both beginner and professional level . Python code are smart , need less code compared to other programming language and syntax are easy to understand.  Lot of Inbuild library are integrated with Python for different work  , other than that many third party libraries specially for Artificial Intelligence model training third party libraries are very popular .

                 In this article we will learn about "loop" ,  what is loop ? loop is nothing but approach for examination of every object , for example a string "This is a python code" , if i need every character of this string , I need to use "loop",  "loop" will return every character unless there is any stopping condition . Python support two kind of loop , "for loop" and "While" loop , both are very popular in this days.

for loop — iterates over a sequence (like list, tuple, dictionary, string)

while loop — runs as long as a condition is True 

Example of for loop

Example 1
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "mango"]
for fruit in fruits:
    print(fruit)

output
apple
banana
mango

Example 2
for letter in "Python":
    print(letter)

output

P
y
t
h
o
n

Example of while loop

Example 1

count = 1
while count <= 5:
    print("Count:", count)
    count += 1

output

Count: 1

Count: 2

Count: 3

Count: 4

Count: 5

Some More Topic about Loop:

1. break
2. continue
3. pass
4. else with loops
5. Nested loops

1.break : Break statement break loop for a particular conditions .Loop stops  iterating when it reach to break statement.

Example 1

for i in range(10):
    if i == 5:
        break
    print(i)

output

0 1 2 3 4

2.continue  :continue statement skips the current iteration , that means if any condition satisfy ,loop will bypass the condition.  

Example 1

for i in range(10):

    if i % 2 == 0:

        continue

    print(i)

output

1 3 5 7 9

3.pass : pass do nothing , simple tell the program to do the next work 

Example 1

for i in range(5):

    pass

print("Loop finished!")

output

Loop finished!

4.else with loops : We can write if else condition withing the loop , if condition satisfied do one thing else do another thing.

Example 1

word = "Python"

for ch in word:

    if ch.lower() in ['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u']:

        print(ch, "is a vowel")

    else:

        print(ch, "is a consonant")

output

P is a consonant
y is a consonant
t is a consonant
h is a consonant
o is a vowel
n is a consonant

5.Nested loops :  A loop can be under another loop , may be for loop under for loop or for loop under while loop etc.

Example 1

for i in range(1, 6):      
    for j in range(1, 6):   
        print(i * j, end="\t")
        print() 

output

1 2 3 4 5

2 4 6 8 10

3 6 9 12 15

4 8 12 16 20

5 10 15 20 25

Example 2

i = 1
while i <= 3:
    j = 1
    while j <= 3:
        print(f"i={i}, j={j}")
        j += 1
    i += 1

output

i=1, j=1
i=1, j=2
i=1, j=3
i=2, j=1
i=2, j=2
i=2, j=3
i=3, j=1
i=3, j=2
i=3, j=3

Some Unique Fact of Python Loop

Backward Looping :Pyhon loop can be reverse direction also using reversed()

for i in reversed(range(1, 6)):

    print(i)

Add an else Clause to a Loop :Very Unique feature which is not available in other programming language 

 for i in range(5):
    print(i)
else:
    print("Loop finished without break!")

Looping Over Multiple Sequences Together 

names = ["Ayan", "Riya", "Rohan"]
scores = [85, 92, 78]

for n, s in zip(names, scores):
    print(n, "scored", s)
 

output

Ayan scored 85
Riya scored 92
Rohan scored 78

Python Tutorial : Variable

 Python Tutorial : Variable 

Python is one of the very popular programming language , it is beginner-friendly as well as professional-friendly and easy to understand .The first concepts every learner must understand is the variable.

A variable is identified by name , variable store value in memory. In Python , variables store data , this data can be used or can be manipulated later. Python does not require to declare a variable type explicitly before assignment , it can be declared and assign dynamically.

Here is the example of variable
x = 10
y = "Hello World"

A variable is a musk like a container that holds data. If we write x = 5
python  creates an object with the value 5 and a reference x that points to this object , then
x is not the value , x is a name pointing to the memory location stored location.

 Data Types of Variables

int

--> Integer (full number or number with point) ,

x = 5

float-->

Decimal number(number with point)

, pi = 3.14

str-->

String (text) ,name = "Hellow World"

 bool-->Boolean (True/False) , isHealthy=true

list-->Ordered,collection ,colors = ["red", "blue", "green"]

tuple-->Ordered, unchangeable collection,point = (10, 20)

dict-->Dictionary Objects ,Key-value pairs,student = {"name": "Ayan", "age": 22}

Example:

name = "Ayan"              --string

_age = 25                       --int

user_name1 = "admin"  --string

isHealthy=true               --boolean

my_dict =                      --dictionaly

{

  "brand": "TATA",

  "model": "KIA",

  "year": 2024

}

class A: pass       

class B: pass

class C: pass

lst = [A, B, C]                --list

How to assign values to variables

Single assignment

Integer variables

age = 25

year = 2025

Float variables

pi = 3.14159

height = 5.8

temperature = -2.5

String variables

name = "Ayan Banerjee"

college = 'Netaji Subhash Engineering College'

course = "M.Tech in CSE"

Boolean variables

is_student = True

is_graduated = False

has_passed = True

List variables

colors = ["red", "green", "blue"]

numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40]

mixed = [1, "Ayan", True, 3.14]

Dictionary

student = {

    "name": "Ayan",

    "age": 25,

    "course": "M.Tech CSE",

    "is_active": True

}

Multiple Assignment in Python

Integer

a, b, c = 10, 20, 30

Float

p, q, r = 3.14, 2.71, 1.61

String

first_name, middle_name, last_name = "Ayan", "Kumar", "Banerjee"

Boolean

is_student, is_active, has_passed = True, True, False

List

colors, numbers, fruits = ["red", "green", "blue"], [1, 2, 3], ["apple", "banana"]

Dictionary

student1, student2, student3 = \

    {"name": "Ayan", "age": 25}, \

    {"name": "Riya", "age": 22}, \

    {"name": "Arjun", "age": 23}

Dynamic Typing in Python

Python has a good feature of Dynamic Typing , than means , you do not do not need to declare the type of a variable explicitly,assign value directly , python will detect automatically variable type .Variable type can be change automatically during execution,which means , variable a is integer can be change to string by assign only

How python assign variable type automatically ?

x = 10             

x = "Hello World"  

How python change variable type ?

Float to Bool

y = 3.14      # float

print(y, type(y))

y = True      # bool

print(y, type(y))

String to List

name = "Python"

print(name, type(name))

name = ["P", "y", "t", "h", "o", "n"]

print(name, type(name))

Boolean to String

flag = False

print(flag, type(flag))

flag = "False"

print(flag, type(flag))

What is the advantage of Dynamic Typing ?

1. No need to declare types manually , development is fast.
2. Variables can change any type of data during runtime.
3. Clean and simple.

Deleting Variables

Deleting Variables in a smart feature of python , deleting is simple and it help free memory in long-running programs.

Delete a single variable

x = 10

del x

Delete multiple variables

a = 5

b = 10

c = 15

del a, b, c

Prepared By : Ayan Banerjee

Python Tutorial : Introduction

    Python is very popular programming languages . Python Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. Python is simple, readable, and powerful .It is an open-source, high-level language .Python’s syntax is clean and very easy to understand, it is suitable for beginners as well as working professionals .

Python Supports:

• Web development
• Data science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Machine Learning
• Automation

Why to Learn Python

1) Python’s syntax is simple ,  it is beginner-friendly and easy to understand .Easy to understand in compare with other languages like C++ or Java.

2) No compilation require compilation. The interpreter reads and executes , make it more faster, rather fastest language.

3) Python runs on Windows, macOS, Linux, and mobile OS , almost all platform , i.e Python is cross platform language.

4) Python is free to use and opensource, no license charge is required. it comes under governed under an open-source license.

5) Python have huge in-built library for file handling, regular expressions, database connectivity, web services, mathematics etc.

6) Python supports Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) , i.e classes, inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism etc.

7) Python is High-Level Language ,no need to handle memory management or pointer programming.

8) Python code can be 'embedded' into other languages (like C or C++) and other languages (like C or C++) can be embedded in Python.

9) Python’s community support is large , external libraries 

• NumPy and Pandas for data science
• TensorFlow and PyTorch for AI and ML
• Matplotlib for data visualization

10) Python in-built 'garbage collector' handles memory allocation and deallocation.

Major Applications of Python

Web Development :

Django , Flask , FastAPI framework for used for API to create dynamic website.

Instagram, Pinterest, and YouTube use Python for their backend service of these frame work to make their website

dynamic.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)

Python is the most popular language for Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning.libraries like  TensorFlow , Keras, Scikit-learn, PyTorch works to handle AI,ML application.

Applications :

1. Image and speech recognition
2. Chatbots 
3. virtual assistants
4. Visual Matching

Desktop GUI Applications

Python’s Tkinter, PyQt, and Kivy libraries create desktop applications.

Examples:

• Media players
• File managers
• Custom software tools

Game Development

Python frameworks Pygame and Panda3D is used for 2D and 3D game development.

Popular games like 'Eve Online' and 'Battlefield 2' have used Python in major.

Mobile App Development

Kivy ,BeeWare are used for cross-platform mobile app development.

Cybersecurity and Ethical Hacking

Python is used in cybersecurity for

• Network scanning 
• Malware analysis
• Packet sniffing

Data Science and Data Analytics

libraries like NumPy , Pandas , Matplotlib , Seaborn , Jupyter Notebook is used in  Data Science and Data Analytics.

Example :

1. Market analysis
2. Business intelligence
3. Scientific data visualization

Some Well Known Python Applications

1. Google Search Engine
2. Instagram Backend
3. YouTube Recommendations
4. NASA Software Systems
5. Financial Forecasting Models

First Python Program

1) Open a text editor ,write 

print("Hello, World!")

and Save it as hello.py

2)Run the Program

python hello.py

output is

Hello, World!

If you do not have python installed at your computer

For Windows download from : https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/

and install.

if you are using Linux , run the following program in the terminal

sudo apt update

sudo apt install python3

After installation , you can check version as

python --version

By:Ayan Banerjee

Entrepreneur & Intrapreneur & Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneur & Intrapreneur & Entrepreneurship

                  An Entrepreneur is a person who start a new organisation in terms of business  , entrepreneur got a new in idea from is inner soul and try to established an organisation with profitable perspective. Entrepreneur generally takes a huge financial risk to make their idea established before the world. Entrepreneur have different mind set , they  thinks different , they think advanced. Entrepreneur find opportunity where society cannot imagine a business area.

                 Entrepreneur is a zeal to do something new , service , work ,development , innovation or anything of doing it business. Entrepreneurs task a huge financial risk and they work hard to reach the goal. Entrepreneur faces different problem in terms of bureaucracy, society , technical and managerial, but they has the capability to solve the each problem effectively. 

Some of the great Entrepreneur is 

Ratan Tata : who expand Tata Group into multiple industries  

Steve Jobs : who founded  apple and revolution in smartphone

Elon Musk : founder of SpaceX. 

Some basic characteristics of an Entrepreneur 

>>Entrepreneur generally innovation thinker with new idea and new concept before the world.

>> Entrepreneur takes  huge risk to implement their idea without guarantee of success. 

>>Entrepreneur are great leader , they lead the team and identify the problem and make a clear solution to reach the gold.

>>Entrepreneur motivate themselves , they are self dependent, they are not dependent  on other organisation 

>>Entrepreneur are very hard working and persistent on their work and does not give up if the face any problem.

>>Entrepreneur change them self with the changing of technology and advancement of the human civilisation an adaptation of technical advancement.

             Intrapreneur is a person who start in new idea within an organisation , not as an entrepreneur. Intrapreneur work under a huge organisation and gives new idea , new new business plan to the organisation in terms of product ,service or anything related to business. They also an innovation thinker but work as a employee , they do start a new project or new idea without being told by management to him. Intrapreneur do research within the organisation on his idea , he takes the fund from the company and every facility from the company.Intrapreneur also  problem solver , they face challenge one new idea and solve the problem effectively in a new way , but not like an Entrepreneur who independently start a new business. Intrapreneur is just an employee of the organisation, who work for growth of organisation ,not for himself .Think about Gmail , Gmail creator was employee of Google , he created Gmail for Google but not for himself so he is an Intrapreneur.

            Entrepreneurship is an process of creating a new business or organisation .Entrepreneurship is nothing but the act done by an entrepreneur ,this make employment generation , business establishment in this process idea is generated clearly and implemented in well manage. This is an risky process and must have ability to face  land ,labour, capital and technology effectively.This steps helps to progress economy  of a society , this phase established a new organisation.

By : Ayan Banerjee

Project Management Lifecycle

Project Management Lifecycle

Project Management is a tecnique to manage project effectively , that ensure the project objectives are met within scope,time,budget.Project Management Lifecycle (PMLC) create a systematic path to achive project goals.Project Management Lifecycle (PMLC) breaks down a project task into well-defined phases,each phase have some task that allow managers to monitor progress, allocate resources, and estimate risks at every phase of projects.

The lifecycle consists of five phases: Initiation, Planning, Execution, Monitoring , Controlling, and Closing.Each step has its separate role and significance. 

Project Initiation Phase

The first and most critical phase ,here objectives are define first.Establish the purpose of the project and Identify expected outcomes and success probablitiy.

Example: A software company defining the goal of building an Patroll Software for a large Organisation.

Then Feasibility Study is done , cost-benefit analysis conducted ,technology, manpower, and budget is considered,risks is also calculated.Assign a qualified professional who will lead and communicate across teams (Project Manager).

Stakeholders (clients, sponsors, team, end-users) is also assigned in this phase.

Project Charter (objectives, scope, constraints, assumptions, stakeholders) is developed in this phase.

Project Planning Phase

This is the most critical and detailed phase of project management.

Define Scope

Create a Scope Statement that describes project boundaries.create a proper Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to do the work into manageable tasks.

Develop Project Plan

Create a Project Management Plan covering schedule, cost, communication, risk, quality, and resources.

Budgeting & Cost Estimation

Estimate costs for resources, technology, licenses, and overhead.

Prepare a budget for monitoring expenses.

Schedule Development

Tools like Gantt Charts, PERT Charts, or Critical Path Method (CPM) is used to develop Schedule Development.

Resource Allocation

Identify team members, assign task and responsibilities.

Risk Management Planning

Calculate potential risks (technical, financial, environmental).

Quality Management Plan

Define quality control strategy.

Project Execution Phase

In this phase project is executed , that means work is performed, and deliverables like are created.

Team Mobilization

Assign roles and responsibilities formally and make sure that the team understands objectives and milestones.

Task Execution

Carry out project tasks as per the WBS and schedule.

Develop deliverables like output.

Resource Utilization

Allocate and monitor resources effectively to achive optimum output.

Communication & Collaboration

Have open communication across teams to remove any barrier and hasitation.

Tools like Slack, Trello, Jira are suitable for this phase.

Project Monitoring & Controlling Phase

This phase is the heart of Project Management Lifecycle that runs in parallel with Execution to ensure the project stays on track, identify delay , fault,resource mismanagement etc.

Performance Tracking

Keep an eye on progress against the baseline schedule and budget.

Use Earned Value Management (EVM) techniques.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

• Cost variance (CV), Schedule variance (SV).
• Resource utilization efficiency.
• Quality defect rates.
• Monitor risk and maintain risk register. 
• Prevent scope creep.
• Corrective Actions if required (schedule, cost, or resource) , any adjustment is necessary.

Project Closing Phase

Completion of the project.

• Deliverable Handover
• Transfer final products to the client.
• Compile project reports, risk registers, test reports, and financial statements.
• Release team members for new assignments.
• Identify successes, failures, and areas of improvement.
• Formal Closure

Prepared By: Ayan Banerjee

Critical Path Method (CPM)

Critical Path Method (CPM)

Critical Path Method(CPM) is a project management technique that identifies the longest path of tasks in a project ,this longest path determines the project duration.Critical Path Method(CPM) was developed in about 1950 for large, complex industrial projects,construction & IT projects. It is deterministic , that means assumes known task times.Where PERT is Probabilistic CPM is deterministic.CPM mainly focuses on time, not cost (cost can be added).

What are Advantage of Critical Path Method(CPM) 

1) Produced clear project timeline.
2) Helps prioritize important tasks.
3) Improves resource allocation.
4) Supports cost-time trade-offs (crashing).
5) Enhances control on projects.
6) Enhance accountability of teams.

Limitations

1)Assumes fixed activity duration.
2)Less effective with uncertain estimates.
3)Network diagrams may become too complex.
4)Requires frequent updating.
5)Doesn’t directly handle resource constraints.

6)Can give misleading results if inputs are wrong.

7)Time-consuming for very large projects.

Terminology 

• Activities = tasks in a project.
• Events = milestones marking task completion.
• Duration = estimated time to finish a task.
• Dependencies = order in which tasks must be done.
• Network diagram = visual representation of activities.
• Nodes = represent tasks/events.
• Arrows = represent dependencies.
• Path = sequence of activities from start to end.
• Critical path = longest path (in time).
• Non-critical paths = shorter paths with slack.

Here is a simple math on CPM

For A missible projects , here is the breatdown 

Activity A : duration 4, start activity

Activity B : duration 3, depends on A

Activity C : duration 2, depends on A

Activity D : duration 5, depends on B

Activity E : duration 6, depends on C

Activity F : duration 2, depends on D and E (finish activity)

Forward pass — compute ES (Earliest Start) and EF (Earliest Finish)

ES of first activity = 0; 
EF = ES + duration; 
for an activity with multiple predecessors, ES = max(EF of predecessors).

Activity A: ES = 0 → EF = 0 + 4 = 4

Activity B: ES = EF(A) = 4 → EF = 4 + 3 = 7

Activity C: ES = EF(A) = 4 → EF = 4 + 2 = 6

Activity D: ES = EF(B) = 7 → EF = 7 + 5 = 12

Activity E: ES = EF(C) = 6 → EF = 6 + 6 = 12

Activity F: ES = max(EF(D), EF(E)) = max(12,12) = 12 → EF = 12 + 2 = 14

Project duration = EF(F) = 14 time units

Backward pass — compute LF (Latest Finish) and LS (Latest Start)

 LF of final activity = project duration; 

 LS = LF − duration; for predecessors, LF = min(LS of successors).

F: LF = 14 → LS = 14 − 2 = 12

Activity D: successor is F (LS_F = 12) → LF_D = 12 → LS_D = 12 − 5 = 7

Activity E: successor is F (LS_F = 12) → LF_E = 12 → LS_E = 12 − 6 = 6

Activity B: successor is D (LS_D = 7) → LF_B = 7 → LS_B = 7 − 3 = 4

Activity C: successor is E (LS_E = 6) → LF_C = 6 → LS_C = 6 − 2 = 4

Activity A: successors B and C have LS 4 and 4 → LF_A = min(4,4) = 4 → LS_A = 4 − 4 = 0

Slack

Activity	Dur	ES	EF	LS	LF	Float
A	4	0	4	0	4	0
B	3	4	7	4	7	0
C	2	4	6	4	6	0
D	5	7	12	7	12	0
E	6	6	12	6	12	0
F	2	12	14	12	14	0

Critical path(s)

Path 1: A → B → D → F (4 + 3 + 5 + 2 = 14)

Path 2: A → C → E → F (4 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 14)

                                                                    By:Ayan Banerjee

PERT Chart : Program Evaluation and Review Technique

PERT Chart : Program Evaluation and Review Technique

Full form of PERT Chart is "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" ,It is a project management tool.PERT chart is used to plan, schedule, and control complex projects.it was developed in the late 1950s byU.S. Navy during Polaris missile project.

PERT Chart is an event-oriented chart ,it focus on Focuses on events,it represents project activities visually.

    1) Each activity is shown as an arrow.
    2) Each event is shown as a node.
    3) Nodes represent the start or completion of activities.

    4) Identifies dependencies between tasks.

    5) Estimates minimum project completion time.

    6) PERT Chart is useful for projects with uncertainty and helps in decision-making.

    7) PERT Chart emphasizes on time , while CPM emphasizes cost.

    8) PERT Chart is read from left to right.

    9) PERT Chart arrows indicate task order.

    10) PERT Chart events are represented by circles/ellipses.

    11) Suitable for R&D projects.Identifies dependencies between tasks.

Time Estimation in PERT Chart

PERT Chart uses three time estimates Optimistic time (O),Pessimistic time (P) ,Most likely time (M).

Expected time (TE) = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6.

This formula reduces bias and gives weighted average when accounts for uncertainty (For R&D Projects).This makes estimation more realistic and can work wide ranges projects have higher risk.This identify probable completion time and Standard deviation is used for analysis.

Variance (σ²) = [(P – O) ÷ 6]².

Standard deviation (σ) = (P – O) ÷ 6.

Project variance = sum of variances on critical path.

Probability of completion can be calculated.
Formula: 

Z = (Due Date – TE Project) ÷ σ

Higher Z = higher probability
Lower Z = lower probability

By PERT Chart 

• Risk analysis becomes possible.

• Helps avoid unrealistic scheduling.

• Improves confidence in planning.

• Saves time and cost indirectly.

• Brings accuracy in complex projects.

How To Create  PERT Chart 

• Identify all activities of the project.
• Define dependencies between activities.
• List immediate predecessors.
• Draw network diagram.
• Place events (nodes) in correct order.
• Represent activities with arrows.
• Ensure logical sequence.
• Assign time estimates (O, M, P).
• Calculate expected time (TE).
• Identify critical path.
• Critical path = longest path in the network.
• Calculate earliest start (ES) for each activity.
• ES = earliest time an activity can begin.
• Calculate earliest finish (EF).
• EF = ES + activity time.
• Calculate latest finish (LF).
• LF = latest time an activity can finish without delay.
• Calculate latest start (LS).
• LS = LF – activity time.
• Find total float (slack).
• Float = LS – ES (or LF – EF).
• Zero float = critical activity.
• Positive float = non-critical activity.
• Negative float = project delay risk.
• Mark the critical path.
• Check project duration.
• Analyze variances and risk.
• Recheck logical sequence. 

An Example of PERT Chart 

Here is an example of Work - brakdown and how task is dependent on one another .

Activity	Duration	Predecessor(s)
A	3 days	–
B	6 days	A
C	2 days	A
D	5 days	B, C
E	4 days	C
F	3 days	E
G	6 days	D, F
H	5 days	G

Predecessor  menaing one task is dependent on another task , that means (B, C) , C will starts after B finished

Forward Pass (Earliest Times)

A: ES=0 → EF=3

B: ES=3 (after A) → EF=9

C: ES=3 (after A) → EF=5

D: ES=max(EF(B), EF(C))=max(9,5)=9 → EF=14

E: ES=5 (after C) → EF=9

F: ES=9 (after E) → EF=12

G: ES=max(EF(D), EF(F))=max(14,12)=14 → EF=20

H: ES=20 (after G) → EF=25

Project Duration = 25 days (Project will finish in 25 days minimum)

Backward Pass (Latest Times)

Start from project completion at 25:

H: LF=25 → LS=20

G: LF=20 → LS=14

D: LF=14 → LS=9

F: LF=14 → LS=11

E: LF=11 → LS=7

C: LF=min(9 (D), 7 (E))=7 → LS=5

B: LF=9 → LS=3

A: LF=min(3 (B), 5 (C))=3 → LS=0

Slack Calculation : Slack = LS – ES (or LF – EF)

Activity	ES	EF	LS	LF	Slack
A	0	3	0	3	0
B	3	9	3	9	0
C	3	5	5	7	2
D	9	14	9	14	0
E	5	9	7	11	2
F	9	12	11	14	2
G	14	20	14	20	0
H	20	25	20	25	0

Critical Path :A → B → D → G → H

Project Duration = 25 days

By :Ayan Banerjee 

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Economic and Non-economic factors impacting Entrepreneurship

Economic and Non-economic factors impacting Entrepreneurship 

        Entrepreneurship is an zeal to do something new , entrepreneurship is an idea and innovation to do a business in a new way or introduce a new product and business idea in the market. Entrepreneurship process the three stage designing, launching, and running a new business.Most of the entrepreneurship start with small one that slowly grows and get a high economic growth that make in huge Employment generation. Various factor that affect the entrepreneurship for developing affective policy and various support systems. The main influence factor are Economical factor and Non-economical factor 

Economical factor related to money, finance, infrastructure, and market condition. 

Non-Economical factors are  social and environmental education , social status, economical factor refer to the major microeconomics condition that affect the feasibility and profitability of the starting business. This include capital availability for starting business infrastructure , market ,condition and physical policy , labor availability for entrepreneurship. 

Economical factor 

Finance is essential for entrepreneurship or set up a new business , sustainable  finance condition is required to become an entrepreneur, this may come from various source like personal savings , bank loan, venture capital, investors sometime Government support also help for set up a new business infrastructure.

Infrastructure is the next important for new small business , this includes transportation network , communication system , power supply ,waters and sanitation, market accessibility, import export farm.High is this factor , more favorable for a new business 

Market condition ,demand and supply of the goods must balance competition level of the product , consumer behavior and consumer awareness ,awareness program of the particular product. Size of the market an very important factor for entrepreneurship, because a big market can help a new entrepreneur to introduce a new product, entry level  should be low and customer must be aware of the product with various kind of advertisement, online ,offline, electronic media.

Fiscal policy is an another important point for entrepreneurship , subsidies and investment incentives ,import export duties are the factor for entrepreneurship growth.

Availability of skill labor is another important factor of entrepreneurship.Human capital play a vital role for any industry , the availability of educated and skill labor effect the industry health and overall labor policy and productivity of a industry. Educated and skill labor reduce skills shortage problem and the problem of high labor cost and operational efficiency.

Economic stability is another important for set up a new business , inflammation  currency stability , interest rate and political stability of is also play crucial role for entrepreneurship. If currency is not stable and country political stability is affected small business.

Cost of inputs & resources is another factor , this includes  raw materials, energy, land, and labour.high input costs reduce margins and increase pricing risk, that leads  frequent price spikes, supply bottlenecks, seasonal shortages, relocation of production to cheaper regions.

Non-Economical factors 

Technology Advancement is also a part of entrepreneurship factor, Technology cal advancement create new industries and improve productivity, create new opportunity and reduce human effort . RND infrastructure Availability of skill labor is another important part of entrepreneurship. 

Education is an tool to build knowledge ,education build  skill and behavior of the community , it create critical thinking ,financial literacy ,exposure to entrepreneurship and Tec-savy man forece.

Social and Cultural norms are also a part of the factor , risk-taking is the main mindset for Entrepreneurship , accepting of failure , face controversies,  adverse society an accept the growth of large factor for entrepreneurship. Family and community support is also a factor .Family may support to set up a new business ,  emotional encouragement , community network and strong social support system also encourage entrepreneurship.

Legal Framework is also a factor for entrepreneurship , easy of legalization of business ,contract enforcement ,corruption free society ,supportive regulated authority is the key factor for growth of entrepreneurship.

Media plays a transformative role in shaping the mindset of society, especially among the youth. 

       1)Documentaries and Films :Media can create documentaries and highlight the struggles, failures of entrepreneurs.They provide authentic path into the entrepreneurial journey, making it relatable for viewers.

      2)Biographical books and media features on successful entrepreneurs give detailed accounts of how ordinary individuals achieved extraordinary results.

      3)Television, radio, podcasts, and YouTube interviews with entrepreneurs provide a knowledge about a motivational entrepreneurs.It also provides practical tips on finance, market entry, product development, and scaling.

       4)Creating Awareness Among the Youth ,Media campaigns can target young audiences to showcase entrepreneurship not just as a profession, but as a way to contribute to national development.

Cultural Attitudes Toward Failure & Risk is an important factor for developing entrepreneurship . In a society where failure is criticized may discourage entrepreneurship . Risk taking attitute  differs by  society to society and their norms while  starting small and waiting for safe stability.

Gender & Social Equity is a great factor for developing entrepreneurship , both man and woman must have equal right and dignity , barriers to women entrepreneurs face access to financing, social norms, childcare responsibilities.

Behavior of competitors & market structure also effecttive facor developing entreprneurship .Degree of competition, dominance by large firms, informal/unfair competition, collusion is highly effective mater, monopoy business  or high pricing can raise entry barriers , informal competitors able to avoid taxes can undercut formal firms , that creates  price wars, dominant platform fees, many small vendors operating informally.

 

By :Ayan Banerjee